Abstract:The fetal origins hypothesis argues that shocks experienced during pregnancy affect the fetus. An extensively studied shock is the Islamic fasting month Ramadan, when Muslims abstain from eating and drinking during the day for up to 30 days. The expectation is that time-restricted feeding disrupts nutritional intake during pregnancy, and the adverse effects on the fetus manifest at birth and later in life. This research ascertains whether Muslims in Malaysia exposed to Ramadan while in utero are likelier to be out of school than unexposed children. Without health data, we test on human capital outcomes, given that health is a determinant of such outcomes. Using Malaysia’s 1991 Census data, we adopt a difference-in-differences (DD) strategy comparing Muslims against non-Muslims according to prenatal Ramadan exposure status. Our identification strategy relies on the assumption that birth timing is independent of Ramadan. The DD estimate presents marginal effects on Muslims only. We find evidence that exposed Muslims are less likely to drop out relative to unexposed children. Heterogeneous results indicate that the beneficial effects of Ramadan are larger for Muslim children of single mothers and in Muslim-majority districts, hinting at possible mechanisms, such as increased assistance during Ramadan. We also conclude that non-Muslim children are negatively affected by Ramadan despite not being required to fast. The beneficial results for exposed Muslims suggest additional mechanisms at play. Negative findings on non-Muslims who should not have been affected by Ramadan fasting further solidify this. This does not eliminate the possibility of adverse impact from daytime fasting, as effects are net of all Ramadan-related changes. Our findings contribute to understanding how religious events may create differing environments that influence well-being. As Islam is adhered to by billions, research on Ramadan is pertinent to discussions on public health.
Keywords: Global Health Nutrition, prenatal exposure, pregnancy, Ramadan, fetal origins, education, human capital, natural experiment, Islam, nutrition
